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DBL
Dictionary Based Learning
The
By Robert Oliphant
� 2007
ABOUT THE AUTHOR. . .
. Robert Oliphant has written over fifty columns
during the last two years for the online daily Education News (www.EdNews.org).� His best known book is �A Piano for Mrs.
Cimino� (Prentice Hall), which was made into an award-winning EMI film (Monte
Carlo, US Directors) starring Bette Davis. His best known work for
musical theater (music, lyrics, and libretto) is �Oscar Wilde�s Earnest: A
Chamber Opera for Eight Voices and Chorus.� He has a PhD from Stanford,
where he studied medieval lexicography under Herbert Dean Meritt,
and taught there as a visiting professor of
English and Linguistics. He currently serves as executive director of The
Alliance for High Speed Recreational Reading, and formerly served as executive
director of Californians for Community College Equity. A resident of
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction.
. . . Why this book was written and what to expect from it
WHY THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN
Late bloomers
High stakes Testing
A note on practicality
WHAT TO EXPECT FROM THIS BOOK
Personal best learning
Multiple-meaning literacy
Meaning-in-context literacy
Dictionary-based learning and testing
A dictionary-based scale for measuring the difficulty of
vocabulary questions
SECTION
ONE. . . . What about the home life of words? � some
dictionary-based awareness tests for elementary and middle schoolers
�
Guess and grow
Headword status
Homographs
Syllables
Stress
Part of speech
Definitions
Total parts of speech
Derivation words
Dates
Source
Cross references
KEEPING SCORE AND IMPROVING
APPENDIX ONE. . . .
Using the eleven-question sequence with eleven different word targets
APPENDIX TWO. . . . Practical �Eleven Questions� formats
Word targets
The Lord�s Prayer
On Chapman�s Homer, by John Keats
SECTION
TW0. . . . Dictionary-based vocabulary learning and
achievement-scale scoring � an encouraging two-player scenario. . . . with comment added
SECTION
THREE. . . . Reading comprehension skills and dictionary-based home testing �
Samuel Johnson Style
Dictionaries as test question sources
An FCAT-dictionary question comparison
A learner-helper dialogue
The John Twing challenge
English as a foreign language � for everybody
APPENDIX ONE. . . .
Comparison of FCAT �tribe� question format with a dictionary-based �tribe�
question format
FCAT question
Comment
Dictionary-based question
Comment
A note on test construction cost
APPENDIX TWO. . . . How to prepare study lists and
meaning-in-contest test questions for use in learner-helper partnerships, based
on the Random House Webster�s College Dictionary
PRELIMINARY NOTE
STUDYING FOR A MEANING-IN-CONTEXT
Question construction
Answer scoring
Learner strategies
APPENDIX THREE. . . . An illustrative learner-helper reading
comprehension dialogue
�
NOTES AND
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Introduction
WHY THIS BOOKLET WAS WRITTEN. . . . This is a short booklet: but
a helpful one, I feel.� The motivation behind
it can be summed up in two phrases: late bloomers and high stakes testing.
Late
bloomers. . . . We all know from direct experience that human being
mature at different speeds.� Many
twelve-year-old girls are taller than twelve-year-old boys who get their full
growth later on.� Many boys who were too
small to make the football team in high school attain varsity-level size and
strength in their early twenties.
Intellectually and socially, many young Americans mature more
slowly than their classmates in school.�
Today�s C-level student in high school may well become an A-level
student on the college level, just as today�s university Phi Beta Kappa may
well be tomorrow�s graduate-study drop out.�
Whatever human beings are, to come right out with it, they are certainly
too unpredictable to justify predictions regarding the ultimate shape of their
lives, enough so that it is manifestly silly, not just wounding, for any
instructor to say to a student, �You have no talent and no future.�
There�s plenty of directly accessible evidence for this
optimistic view of human potentiality.� Right
now any of us can check the turnout for a 20th high school reunion
against its senior yearbook to see how many high-visibility stars actually show
up.�
We can also check via the
Simply put, what�s here is driven by a desire to encourage late
bloomers and those who think of themselves as such by offering them some
practical personal-growth options, especially in connection with using the
American dictionary as a learning tool, not just an occasionally consulted
reference source.
High
stakes testing. . . . Young people have always had to
take and pass tests in connection with earning educational credit and
degrees.� But today test construction and
test proctoring have become big business, to the degree that worldwide
companies like Pearson Educational Measurement and Thomson Prometric
offer hundreds of different tests at hundreds of different locations, domestic
and foreign, to aspiring test takers in search of career and academic
advancement.
A high stakes test, it should be noted, marches to its own
drummer.� Our state bar exams, for example,
have absolutely no connection with
By way of illustration, the records of the July 2005 State of
In contrast the
The common denominator for most of our high stakes tests can be
summed up in three words: vocabulary, vocabulary, vocabulary! Anyone who
examines library copies of our four pre-professional tests, which call for a
total of 16 hours test taking time,� will discover that over 8 hours,
including writing samples, are devoted to the English vocabulary in one form or
another, more than enough to justify the assertion that plenty of personal best
time, concentration, and a good dictionary will take a late bloomer much
further than sitting in a stuffy classroom discussing the news of the day.
A
note on practicality. . . . Most parents and teachers will
agree, I�m sure, that talking about learning can be more complicated than the
process itself.�
So I feel obliged to point out that I�ve tried out what�s here
with many different kinds of learners, ranging from second graders to seventy
plus, all of whom were quite comfortable with the learner-helper-dictionary
partnership.
As far as dictionaries go, I want to point out that what�s here
will work with any standard family-size dictionary.� Like Tolstoy�s happy families, all
dictionaries are �lexicographical� in the same way.� This is to say that they all cover the same
high-frequency 20,000 words and vary only in their coverage of slang, proper
names, and technical terminology.�
From this point of view,
WHAT TO EXPECT FROM THIS BOOKLET. . . . The main concerns of
what�s here can be summed up in five phrases: personal best learning,
definitional literacy, meaning-in-context literacy, dictionary-based learning
and testing, and dictionary-based standards for measuring vocabulary difficulty.
Personal
best learning. . . .�
It�s apparent that the
What holds all of these different personal best fitness programs
together are three basic elements, sometimes abbreviated as ACT, namely,
accurate measurement, crossover impact, and time efficiency.� The first of these keeps track of the effort
(time, distance, calories, repetitions, etc.), and the second keeps track of
how the effort links up with desirable results (weight loss, cardiac
improvement, competitive sports improvements, etc.).� The third attempts to design programs that
will achieve desirable results in a manner that is both convenient and
productive.
Right now personal best physical fitness programs are by
ACT-standards far ahead of most mental fitness programs.� Hence the need for a program like DBL that
breaks new low-cost ground in vocabulary learning in the measurement
department, especially for personal best learners � very much like using the
home dictionary as a �home intellectual gym.�
Multiple-meaning
literacy. . . . Many cultural literacy tests ask us to match a
description up with the name of the person it describes, as in the
Jeopardy-style statement clue, �He was the first president of the
Crossword puzzles are splendid tests of multiple-meaning literacy,
especially tricky spelling clues like �to absorb or pay for� (3 letters) �
Answer:� EAT, as listed under definition
6 of the Random House Webster�s College Dictionary and illustrated with the
sentence, �The builder had to eat the repairs.���� Section One shows
how any family dictionary, not just Random House, can be used as a learning
tool in improving basic vocabulary power (i.e., definitional literacy) and also
as a test-construction tool for measuring how much improvement is taking
place.� It closes with an illustrative
game-style two-participant dialogue for use on any study level, ranging from third
grade to pre-professional testing candidate.
Meaning-in-context
literacy. . . . Many high-stakes tests pride themselves on measuring
high-level reading skills, namely our ability to distinguish between a word�s
literal meaning and a less tangible figure-of-speech meaning, as in �What�s
eating you?�� But high-level test
questions in this area have over the years been very, very frustrating to many
test takers, especially those who want an authoritative explanation of why EAT
has a literal meaning in �What are you eating?� and a figurative meaning in
�What�s eating you?�
Section Three solves this problem by using the dictionary as the
source of the phrases and sentences in which the target word appears, as in the
question, �Which definition best fits the meaning of EAT in the sentence, �The
builder had to eat the repairs�? (a) to
take into the mouth and swallow for nourishment,�� (b) �to make (a hole, passage, etc.), as by
gnawing or corrosion,�� (c)� �to absorb or pay for.��
It also includes an illustrative two-participant dialogue
showing how these authoritative right-or-wrong dictionary based questions can
be quickly pulled out of a dictionary for use in an informal learning-review
session.
Dictionary-based learning and
testing. . . . Sections One and Two both emphasize the role of
up-front test construction in vocabulary learning.� The success of the Scripps spelling bee, for
instance, owes a great deal to the fact that the participants know in advance
their target words (usually 800 single-definition words) and the three clues
they�ll be given, namely, pronunciation, part-of-speech, and definition, as in
�/hal'i toh"sis/. . .
. noun. . . . a condition of
having offensive-smelling breath.�
American
college-size dictionaries can fairly be called �full-service vocabulary power
tools.�� Each one of them offers a test
designer roughly 70,000 single-word entries, 200,000 definitions, and over
70,000 illustrative phrases or sentences for specific definitions.� Consequently, personal-best learners can select
their target words FIRST and study their dictionary entries, including
etymologies and the sequence-logic of definitions.�
After
this, much later, it�s a simple matter � as in our two dialogues � to ask a
fellow-learner or family member to construct a few �sampling questions� from
the dictionary entries for those target words.�
As for target-word lists, these are currently
available from professional educators, in libraries and on the internet �
enough so to serve a wide range of ages, abilities, and interests (medical
vocabulary, for example).��
More
ambitiously, what�s here does not rule out large-scale classroom testing or
even online testing.� But the goal here
has been to present a very simple, practical, and above all understandable
system, which in itself is certainly a feature that designers of more ambitious
programs will welcome and use.
A dictionary-based scale for measuring
the difficulty of vocabulary questions. . . . As matters
stand, the New York Times tells us that its crossword puzzles vary in
difficulty.� But it doesn�t specify the
degree of variation; nor does it tell us exactly why one specific puzzle � or
one puzzle question � is more difficult than another.�
The
same uncertainly holds today for professionally designed vocabulary questions
and tests. . . . We all know the variation is there.� But we don�t have a tool for measuring that
variation across the board in the same way that we can measure variations in
body weight, calorie consumption, distance run, and exercise intensity,
etc.� Sections One and Two both present
such a scale, based on the work of George Kingsley Zipf
and on� key
entry features: word-familiarity and definition-sequence.�
TO CONCLUDE. . . . I hope the above introduction
come across as too heavy handed to some readers � �academic,� in the worst
sense of the word.� But our mainstream English
vocabulary is where we all live, second graders and seventy-year-old senior
citizens. �Ideally it should work for us
individually in a productive manner, not just give us trouble and make us feel
inadequate.� Linguistically considered,
each of us is a late bloomer.� So I hope
what�s here makes sense across the board to Americans of all ages and educational
levels.�
Whatever
civilization is, it�s certainly a Big Vocabulary.� As indicated by the size of our dictionaries,
that�s what American civilization has and why it�s more than just a
�culture.�� As I said at the outset, this
is a short booklet: a small bungalow, not a mansion.� But its concerns are large.
Useful
too, I hope, especially for personal best learners. . . . and
encouragingly so.
But
even a bungalow needs a foundation of some kind, heavy though some of the
stones may be.� For personal best
learners of all ages I hope the above makes good sense � encouragingly so.������
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION. . . . Why this book was written and what to
expect from it
WHY THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN
Late bloomers
High stakes Testing
WHAT TO EXPECT FROM THIS BOOK
Personal best learning
Multiple-meaning literacy
Meaning-in-context literacy
Dictionary-based learning and testing
A dictionary-based scale for measuring the difficulty of
vocabulary questions
�SECTION ONE. . . .
What about the home life of words? � some
dictionary-based awareness tests for elementary and middle schoolers
�
Guess and grow
Headword status
Homographs
Syllables
Stress
Part of speech
Definitions
Total parts of speech
Derivation words
Date
Source
Cross references
KEEPING SCORE AND IMPROVING
APPENDIX ONE. . . .
Using the eleven-question sequence with eleven different word targets
APPENDIX TWO. . . . Practical �Eleven Questions� formats
Word targets
The Lord�s Prayer
On Chapman�s Homer, by John Keats
>SECTION TW0. . . . Dictionary-based
vocabulary learning and achievement-scale scoring � an encouraging two-player
scenario. . . . with comment added
>SECTION THREE. . . . Reading comprehension skills and
dictionary-based home testing � Samuel Johnson Style
Dictionaries as test question sources
An FCAT-dictionary question comparison
A learner-helper dialogue
The John Twing challenge
English as a foreign language � for everybody
Appendix ONE. . . . Comparison of FCAT �tribe� question format
with a dictionary-based �tribe� question format
FCAT question
Comment
Dictionary-based question
Comment
A note on test construction cost
APPENDIX TWO. . . . How to prepare study lists and
meaning-in-contest test questions for use in learner-helper partnerships, based
on the Random House Webster�s College Dictionary
PRELIMINARY NOTE
STUDYING FOR A MEANING-IN-CONTEXT
Question construction
Answer scoring
Learner strategies
APPENDIX THREE. . . . an illustrative
learner-helper reading comprehension dialogue
�
NOTES AND
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SECTION
ONE. . . . What about the Home Life of
Words? � A Dictionary-Based Awareness Test for Elementary and Middle Schoolers
Is this country quietly
moving toward outright lexiphilia?� Right now, according to www.dictionaryproject.org, almost
five million (4,873,827) elementary and middle schoolers,
with an emphasis upon third graders, have received free family-size
dictionaries at the local level from various service organizations, including
Rotary, Kiwanis, Verizon, and even the Grange.� So why not a new dictionary
game to stand up against the temptations of video gaming?
Dear Elementary and Middle Schoolers:
By now you�ve probably
learned from experience that reading is a giant guessing game, especially when
it comes to deciding what a word means in a particular sentence.� Here�s a small-scale guessing game which
deals exclusively with individual words, those interesting little creatures
that fly in and out of our heads before returning to their individual dwelling
places in the
Each resident in the Land
of Word-dom is different.� So your dictionary is bound to treat each one
differently, sometimes surprisingly so.�
Does TREAT, for example, get more lines in your dictionary than INTERESTING?� At this point we can only guess.� But once we open up the dictionary we can
tell whether we�ve guessed correctly or not.�
Even better, we can improve our guessing skills with practice, along
with our ability to read with both speed and comprehension.�
Guess and grow.
. . . Our new dictionary game gives you eleven questions to play with.� To make our description simple, we�ll use the
same target word, namely, QUESTION itself, and present each question via six
elements: question number, category (in parentheses), number of points (also in
parentheses),� specific question-wording,
correct answer, and a comment.� After
this, we�ll give you a chance to do some guessing on your own in Appendices One
and Two.�
The dictionary source
we�re using is the 2001 Random House Webster�s College Dictionary.� But any other dictionary will do as long as
it covers about 70,000 words and 200,000 definitions (roughly 1,500 pages).
Q1. (headword status).... (2 points).... Does this word (QUESTION) appear as an
entry (in boldface type) exactly as spelled (yes or no)?....
Answer: yes.... Comment:� If our target
word had been �questions,� the correct answer would be no.� Your family dictionary will list only the
basic spelling as a headword, not regularly �inflected� forms like plurals and
past tenses.� If your
target word is an irregular form like RAN (past tense of RUN), its listing will
refer you to the full entry for RUN.
Q2.� (homographs).... (2 points).... Is this word a homograph (yes
or no)?....�
Answer: no.... Comment:�
Homographs (literally �same written form�) are words which are spelled
the same but differ in origin, and are sometimes even pronounced differently,
as in� LEAD 1
(the verb) and LEAD 2 (the metal).� Your
family dictionary will use numerals to distinguish between numerals.
Q3.� (syllables). . . . (4 points).... How many syllables does
this word have, according to its first listed phonetic transcription (one or
two, three, four, more than four)?.... Answer: two....
Comment: A headword�s phonetic transcription appears immediately after it, very
much like the entry hall to its home.�
For QUESTION, the Random House phonetic transcription, /kwes"cheuhn/, indicates that it has two
syllables.� Some family dictionaries
divide the headword itself in syllables; but these indicate where hyphens go in
printing, not actual pronunciation.
Q4. (stress). . . . (5 points) Which
syllable, if any, gets the most emphasis, or primary stress, in its
pronunciation (one, two, three, four, none of these)?....
Answer: one.... Comment:� The �double
apostrophe� after /kwes/ in the phonetic description
of QUESTION tells us it gets the primary stress.� One-syllable words like RUN don�t have any
primary stress indicated, while four-syllable words like PRONUNCIATION /preuhnun'see ay"sheuhn/ may
also have a �secondary stress� indicated with a single apostrophe. . . . Later
on you may want to learn how to transcribe phonetically.� But for now your natural ability to recognize
primary-stress syllables is an important language skill � and well worth
practicing.
Q5. (part of speech). . . . (4 points).... What part of speech is first listed for this headword (noun,
verb, adjective, other)?.... Answer: noun.... Comment:
When we use words in sentences they usually fit into basic categories that we
recognize at a glance.� Dictionaries list
the major ones as abbreviations: n. for Noun, v. for Verb, adj. for adjective, v.t. for Transitive Verb, and v.i.
for Intransitive Verb. . . . Later on you may want to learn more about
grammatical terms.� But for now your
ability to guess these five will help your reading comprehension immensely.
Q6. (definitions). . . . (3
points).... How many numbered definitions (1, 2, 3, etc.) appear in the entry
for this headword (1 or 2; from 3 to 8; more than 8)?....
Answer: 17.... Comment:� Frequently used
words, like Swiss army knives, have lots of uses, or definitions.� Special purpose words, like PNEUMONIA, are
less frequently used and therefore have only one or two definitions. . . . A
dictionary usually lists the most frequently used definition at the beginning
of an entry.� So don�t be surprised if a
high-number definition strikes you as odd and unfamiliar, as in �to challenge,
dispute,� which is the 13th definition listed for QUESTION.
Q7. (part-of-speech total). . . . (3 points).... What is the total
number of parts of speech listed for this headword (one, two, three or more)?.... Answer: three (n., v.t., and
v.i.).... Comment:�
Frequently used words acquire new part-of-speech uses, not just new
meanings (in speech) and new definitions (in the dictionary). . . . Regarding
RUN, for example, you�re probably quite skillful by now in figuring out the
part-of-speech difference between �
Q8. (derivation words). . . . (3 points)....What, if any, is the total number of
related words (not numbered and usually in boldface print) that appear in the
entry for this headword (one or two, three or more)?.... Answer: one or two
(QUESTIONER).... Comment:� Both Latinate
English and Anglo-English can derive new words from existing words by adding
suffixes or prefixes, as in the addition of �ER to QUESTION, or even �ATION to
DERIVE. Dictionaries list these suffixes and prefixes, including their hyphens,
as separate headwords in boldface print.�����
Q9.� (date). . . . (5 points).... What is the first date listed
for this headword (before 1000, 1000-1499, 1500-1799, 1800 and after, none
listed)?.... Answer: 1000-1499.... Comment: Random
House lists the entry date as 1250-1300.�
These dates are based upon the date of the document in which the word
actually appears, usually as cited in the Oxford English Dictionary (New
English Dictionary on Historical Principles) or the more recent Middle English
Dictionary (
Q10.� (source). . . . (3 points).... What language is listed as the
source for this headword (Old English; Latinate, including Greek; none of
these)?.... Answer: Latinate.... Comment:� Like parts of speech, word sources
(etymologies) are listed via abbreviations:�
OE for Old English and many �L and �Gk combinations for Graeco- and Latinate sources: L and Lat. for Latin; ML, LL
and NL for Medieval Latin, Late Latin and New Latin; Gk, MGk,
and ModGK for Greek, Medieval Greek, and Modern
Greek. . . . It�s important to identify the earliest listed source, as opposed
to intermediate stages like French, Spanish, and Italian. . . . QUESTION, for
instance, is etymologized as [1250-1300; (n.) ME questio(u)
n, questiun <
MF question < L quaestio = quaes-, s. of quaerere to
ask].� The directional angles (<)
tell us it came into Middle English from a Middle French word which came from a
Latin word. . . . In a college dictionary of 70,000 headwords, 10% have Old
English sources and 80% have Latinate sources.�
The remaining�
10%� come from elsewhere:
German, Dutch, Norse, Hindi, American Indian, Arabic, etc.�
Q11.� (cross references).
. . . (4 points). . . . How many cross-references (in capital letters) are
listed for this headword (one or two, three or more, none).... Answer: one or
two (BEG). . . . Comment.... Cross references link the headword to other
headwords via etymology, prefixes, suffixes, and usage.� For vocabulary learners they help to fix
headword-definition partnerships firmly in the memory.� The cross reference BEG, for example, takes
us definition 8 and the phrase �beg the question,� including its special
meaning among debaters, �to avoid the issue.���
KEEPING SCORE AND
IMPROVING . . . This is a dictionary-based guessing game in which each player,
including adults, is equally in the dark.�
So our scoring system gives players a point for each guessing-choice in
a question: two points for a 2-choice question, three points for a 3-choice
question, etc.� Consequently, our 11
questions add up to a total of 34 points.�
This means that any score over 17 points indicates a pretty high level
of vocabulary awareness � and reading comprehension.
Just as important, our
scoring system opens the door to personal best improvement in vocabulary
awareness and reading comprehension.� Appendix
One, for example, presents our eleven questions linked
in sequence to eleven headwords from the Pledge of Allegiance, along with a
sample test performance by an adult that was corrected via the Random House
Webster�s College Dictionary � WordGenius� (CD ROM
version.�
Appendix Two presents additional eleven-word targets taken from familiar
documents:
TO CONCLUDE.
. . . For Americans in general,
especially elementary and middle schoolers, these
eleven questions are very much like a very short travelers
guidebook to the
Most of those lights, we
know, represent houses and neighborhoods, each of which is connected with other
houses and neighborhoods in many different ways, just like a network of
telephone or internet connections.� A
family size dictionary, practically considered, is nothing more than a �tele-word book� with plenty of historical gossip.� In addition to basic address information
(spelling, pronunciation, part of speech, etc.), a good dictionary also tells
us what our word-neighbors do for a living (definitions), where they come from
(etymologies), and even who their relatives are (derivations and cross
references).
As preschoolers, all we
need to know is our home address and phone number.� As elementary and middle schoolers,
though, we need to know much more: our neighborhood, our city or town, our nation,
along with our connectedness to Planet Earth the universe as a whole.� More than any book in a city library, a good
dictionary (print or CD ROM) opens up that connectedness in a way that we can
remember and put to use word by word and definition by definition.
So welcome to the
***
APPENDIX ONE. . . . .� Using the eleven-question sequence with eleven different
word-targets.�
As we�ve seen, our eleven
dictionary-based �guessing questions� can deal with a single target word like
QUESTION.� But they can also deal one by
one with eleven different word targets.�
By way of illustration, here are eleven headwords taken from the Pledge
of Allegiance, each of which is linked to a specific question.�
The expression �1-PLEDGE,�
for example, indicates that our first question applies to PLEDGE, while
2-ALLEGIANCE indicates that our second question applies to ALLEGIANCE,
etc.� More formally, then, here are our
eleven question-word correspondences. . . . 1-PLEDGE, 2-ALLEGIANCE, 3-FLAG,
4-UNITE, 5-STATE, 6-REPUBLIC, 7-STAND, 8-NATION, 9-GOD, 10-INDIVISIBLE,
11-JUSTICE.����������
By way of showing the
whole process at work, here�s the author�s own guessing performance on these
eleven question-word correspondences on Jan.13, 2007).� Each guess is then followed by the correct
answers and the number of points earned, if any.� Random House Webster�s College Dictionary � WordGenius� (a CD ROM version) was source used to locate
correct answers.
1������������� yes. . . ./ yes (2)
2������������� no. . . ./no (2)
3������������� 1 or 2. . . . /1 (4)
4������������� two . . . ./2 (5)
5������������� noun. . . ./ noun (4)
6������������� between 3 and 8. . . ./ 4 (3)
7������������� 3 or more. . . ./ 3 �vi, vt, n (3)
8������������� 3 or more. . . . /2 (0!!!)
9������������� before 1000. . . ./before 900 (5)
10����������� Latinate. . . ./Latinate (3)
11����������� three or more. . . ./ two (0!!!)
Total score (34-6) 28
points.
COMMENT. . . . I should
point out here that I�m a former English teacher and know quite a bit about
dictionaries in general.� Even so, I feel
I was pretty lucky in some of my guesses.�
I would have be satisfied with any thing over
twenty points, to tell the truth. . . . I�m not sure how I would have done if
all eleven questions had dealt with PLEDGE or if the question-word
correspondences had started further down on the word list, as for instance,
1-ALLEGIANCE, 2-FLAG, 3-UNITE, 4-STATE, 5-REPUBLIC, 6-STAND, 7-NATION, 8-GOD,
9-INDIVISIBLE, 10-JUSTICE, 11-PLEDGE.
Remember, though, �Eleven
Questions� is simply a dictionary-based guessing game, nothing more.� If it opens some doors for elementary schoolers and their families, that�s just marvelous.� If it doesn�t, it can still be a lot of fun �
for everyone involved.
***
APPENDIX TWO. . . . Practical
�Eleven Questions� Formats
Preliminaries. . . .
Practically considered, the most practical questioning format has always been
that of the spoken word (viva voce, it used to be called).� Appendix One
therefore presents our eleven questions in spoken-word form.� This means that each answer can immediately
be checked in a family dictionary, even an old one.� Our basic vocabulary, especially
multi-definition words, is still the same as it was for the Merriam Webster
1913 Unabridged Dictionary, which is now in public domain and available online
via www.dictionary.com.
For written format or
online testing, it�s worth noting that each question fits a standard
multiple-choice format, and that the quickest way to check answers is via a CD
ROM version of our five major family dictionaries:
Word targets. . . . Any
word list will do as a target source, including spelling lists.� For flexibility, though, a standard text,
song lyric, or poem offers the advantages of familiarity and memorability.� By way
of illustration here are 11-word target groups, each of which presents
so-called �content� words (nouns, verbs, adjectives), as opposed to �helper�
words (prepositions, auxiliaries, conjunctions, pronouns, etc.). . . . For
convenience, all words are here cited in their headword form.
>
�>The
Lord�s Prayer. . . . 1-HEAVEN.... 2-HALLOW.... 3-NAME.... 4- KINGDOM....
5-COME.... 6-WILL.... 7-DO.... 8-EARTH.... 9-GIVE.... 10-BREAD.... 11-FORGIVE
>
>On Chapman�s Homer,. by
John Keats. . . . 1-TRAVEL.... 2-REALM.... 3-GOLD.... 4-KINGDOMS....
5-SEE.... 6.... WESTERN.... 7-ISLAND.... 8-BARD....
9-FEALTY.... 10-BROAD.... 11-EXPANSE.
Eleven questions targeting
one word or eleven questions targeting eleven different words � these are the
guessing options open to us.� And the
best part is that we doing our guessing completely in our head if we memorize
our 11 question categories via their initials as hh-ss-pd-pdd-sc
and their points in the same groupings 22-45-44-335-33. . . . And what�s here
simply scratches the surface as far as target words go.
The newspaper, television,
school, the speech of your friends and neighbors � your life is filled with
word targets flying around you.� Why not
take aim at a few of them and try your luck with a round or so of ELEVEN
QUESTIONS?
***
SECTION
TWO. . . . Dictionary-Based Vocabulary Learning and Achievement-Scale Scoring �
An Encouraging Two-Player Scenario
By Robert
Oliphant
Good games
have interesting scoring systems.� Thanks
to cumulative scoring, a Monopoly game can last for over a week,
and so can a two-player game of Blackjack in which the dealer and player switch
roles back and forth.� The same is also
true of� vocabulary learning partnerships
that award more points to an 11-letter answer (PHTHIRIASIS) for the queried
definition, �crab lice infestation,� than to a 3-letter answer (BED) for �a
piece or part forming a foundation or base.�
Crossword
puzzles and spelling bees both employ definition-first questions, and spelling
bees rely upon dictionary-listed definitions, thereby drawing from a potential
question pool of over 200,000 target word-definition questions in an American
college-level dictionary.� So the only
thing new about our mentor-learner vocabulary learning game is its linking of
correct answers to points earned to an achievement scale.
The
appended dialogue between
*
APPENDIX. .
. . Dictionary-based vocabulary learning and achievement-scale scoring � a
do-it-yourself game for two participants
Dear
participants. . . . This game calls you to take turns playing two roles.� One is that of an information provider or MENTOR who uses a dictionary.� The other is that of a LEARNER who makes
choices and earns points.� By way of
illustration, here is a sample dialogue, along with explanatory comments in
brackets.� As you�ll see, the game is
much like vocabulary games that passengers in an automobile play during a long,
long drive.� What�s new about it is its
emphasis upon the dictionary as a question-source and as a basis for
determining the difficulty level of specific questions.
MENTOR. . .
. Welcome to our game. . . . How many letters do you want your
dictionary-listed target word to have? . . . . [NB. Hint: words with few
letters are usually easier to guess than words with many letters.]
LEARNER. .
. . Four letters.
MENTOR. . .
. I�ll be using the Random House Webster�s College Dictionary, 2nd
Edition, 2001 (RHC). [NB. Any desk dictionary can be used as long as it�s large
enough, that is, 1200 pages or more. . . . RHC devotes 1427 A-to-Z pages to
headwords and their definitions.]. . . . On what page do you want me to begin
searching for your headword?� [NB. A
dictionary�s entry words or �headwords� customary appear in boldface and in a
non-inflected form (singular for nouns, infinitive for verbs).]
LEARNER. .
. . Page 202.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you. . . . The first target word meeting your letter requirement that
appears on page 202 or thereafter has 15 definitions. . . . Which definition do
you want me to give you as a guessing clue?�
[NB. All
dictionaries list the most familiar definitions at the beginning of an
entry.� Definition #1 would therefore be
more helpful than Definition#10. . . . On the other hand, Definition #10 gives
participants a chance to win more points.�
Our point-earning formula for each target word is therefore based on an vocabulary achievement scale that has three elements:
(L): number of letters plus (DN) definition number) divided as a whole by (TD)
total number of definitions.� The result,
which indicates the target word�s level of difficulty, is then multiplied by
100 to produce the number of points earned via what we call a �vocabulary
achievement scale. . . .� By way of
illustration:� A correct target-word
answer for Definition#10 would earn 90 points� {(L4+DN10)/TD15=.90x100=90}, while a
choice of Definition#1 for the same target word would earn only 33 points
{(L4+DN1)/15=.33x100=33}.]
LEARNER. .
. . Definition #1.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you. . . . Here�s Definition#1 of your target word: �an open,
relatively shallow container of pottery, glass, etc., used esp. for holding or
serving food.�� If you want to guess now,
answer Yes.� If
you want to stop answer No.� If you want an initial-letter clue, answer
Clue.
LEARNER. .
. . Yes.
MENTOR. . .
. Please spell out your guess letter by letter.
LEARNER. .
. . D-I-S-H.
MENTOR. . .
. Congratulations!� Your correct guess of
DISH has earned you 33 points.� Do you
want to play another hand?� Please answer
Yes or No.
LEARNER. .
. . Yes.
*
MENTOR. . .
. Welcome to a new hand in our game. . . . How many letters do you want your
dictionary-listed target word to have? . . . .
LEARNER. .
. . 5.
MENTOR. . .
. On what page do you want me to begin searching for your headword?� LEARNER. . . .� 410.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you. . . . The first target word meeting your letter requirement that
appears on page 410 or thereafter has 15 definitions. . . . Which definition do
you want me to give you as a guessing clue?�
LEARNER. .
. . Definition #10.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you. . . . Here�s Definition#10 of your target word: �to put forward,
submit, or register formally: to *****
an objection; to ***** a bid.�� If you
want to guess now answer Yes.� If you want to stop answer No.� If you want an initial-letter clue, answer
Clue.
LEARNER. .
. . Clue.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you. . . . Here�s the initialized form of your target word. . . . E****.
. . . If you want to guess now answer Yes.� If you want to stop answer No.� If you want a pronunciation clue, answer
Clue.
LEARNER. .
. Yes.
MENTOR. . .
. Please spell out your guess letter by letter.
LEARNER. .
. . E-N-T-E-R.
MENTOR. . .
. Congratulations!� Your correct guess
has earned you 105 points. [The help of a clue requires that the multiplication
factor be reduced from 100 to 70 so that our formula produces a lower number,
{5+10)/15=1.5x70=105}].� Do you want to
play another hand?� Please answer Yes or
No.
LEARNER. .
. . Yes.
�MENTOR. . . . Welcome to a new hand in our
game. . . . How many letters do you want your dictionary-listed target word to
have?
LEARNER. .
. . Six letters.
MENTOR. . .
. On what page do you want me to begin searching for your headword?� LEARNER. . . . 744.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you. . . . The first target word meeting your letter requirement that
appears on page 744 or thereafter has 3 definitions. . . . Which definition do
you want me to give you as a guessing clue?�
LEARNER. .
. . 3.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you. . . . Here�s Definition#3 of your target word: �a large brightly
colored silk or cotton kerchief often used for turbans.�� If you want to guess now, answer Yes.� If you want to
stop answer No.�
If you want an initial-letter clue, answer Clue.
LEARNER. .
. . Clue.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you. . . . Here�s the initialized form of your target word. . . .
M*****. . . . If you want to guess now answer Yes.� If you want to stop answer No.� If you want a pronunciation clue, answer
clue.
LEARNER. .
. . Clue.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you.� The pronunciation of your
target word may appear in either spoken form or in phonemic transcription
form.� The phonemic transcription form of
your target word is /mad"reuhs/.� If you want to guess now answer yes.� If you want to stop answer No.
LEARNER. .
. . Yes.
MENTOR. . .
. Please spell out your guess letter by letter.
LEARNER. .
. . M-A-D-R-U-S.
MENTOR. . .
. Sorry. . . . The correct dictionary spelling of your target is
LEARNER. .
. . Yes.
*
MENTOR. . .
. Welcome to a new hand in our game. . . . How many letters do you want your
dictionary-listed target word to have? . . . .
LEARNER. .
. . 6.
MENTOR. . .
. On what page do you want me to begin searching for your headword?� LEARNER. . . . 1015.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you. . . . The first target word meeting your letter requirement that
appears on page 1015 or thereafter has 2 definitions. . . . Which definition do
you want me to give you as a guessing clue?�
LEARNER. .
. . 1.
MENTOR. . .
. Thank you. . . . Here�s Definition#1 of your target word: �any of several
large-eared, hopping lagomorphs of the family Leporidae,
usu. smaller than the hares and characterized by bearing blind and furless
young in nests.�� If you want to guess
now, answer Yes.�
If you want to stop answer No.� If you want an initial-letter clue, answer
Clue.
LEARNER. .
. . Yes.
MENTOR. . .
. Please spell out your guess letter by letter.
LEARNER. . .
. R-A-B-B-I-T.
MENTOR. . .
. Congratulations!� Your correct guess
has earned you 300 points.� Do you want
to play another hand?� Please answer Yes
or No.
LEARNER. .
. . No.
MENTOR. . .
. Well done! . . . Your total score is 438. . . . Do you want to make a record
of this score?
LEARNER. .
. . Yes.
MENTOR. . .
. Would you like to switch roles?
LEARNER. .
. . Yes.
*
COMMENT. .
. . In this dialogue the target words have been chosen randomly from a college
dictionary page by page.� But they could
just as easily have been chosen from an established word list like the Dolch series, one of the many lists currently available on
the internet (www.graduateshotline.com,
etc.), or even the 700-word glossary of medical terms (some of them with more
than one definition) that appears at the end of the Mayo Clinic Family Health
Book.
Needless to
say, chosen target words could also have been studied in advance, using
whatever mnemonic techniques work for individual learners.� Practically considered, the test taking
experience by itself will have substantial learning impact, enough so to
justify echoing Lewis Carroll�s Queen of Hearts. . . . �Test (execution) first,
then the studying (trial)!� . . .
At least
two learners working together are essential, though. . . .� And a lot of fun!
SECTION TWO. . . .
Reading comprehension skills and dictionary-based home testing � Samuel Johnson
style
Official and
quasi-official tests of reading comprehension are increasingly important these
days, as indicated by Question 54 from a recent Florida Comprehensive
Assessment Test booklet. . . . �In� his response to Abigail
Adams' letter [it precedes this question] of
For seventh graders and their parents,
multiple meaning questions like these are cognitive nightmares, even for those
who can sniff out John�s covert sexism and come up with (H) as the officially correct
answer.� Even for more literal-minded
youngsters, to whom a tribe is a tribe is a tribe, the equation of �ladies�
with �tribe� may make perfect sense on the surface.� But who of us could explain to a
literal-minded seventh-grader (many of them are still just that) exactly why
this is so? And how on earth could we use a current dictionary to get our point
across?� Or in more focused, practical
terms, what can parents and teachers do that will help literal-minded young
Americans to recognize and comprehend what a multiple-meaning word means in a
specific meaning-in-context test question � demonstrably so?
�
Dictionaries as test question sources. . .
. To most Americans, tests in general are quite mysterious.� Who designs them?� Where do the questions come from?� Who decides what the correct answers
are?� Where do we go to complain?� Questions like these are simply out of bounds
for our current alphabet soup of high-stakes tests: FCAT, ACT, SAT, GMAT, GRE,
LSAT, MCAT, etc.� In contrast, the drivers tests we take in most states are crystal clear,
largely because they are explicitly based upon a printed study handbook which
in turn is based upon the state vehicle code.�
Consequently, since test taker know exactly where the questions come
from, they know what to study and how to measure their progress by testing
themselves, often with the help of a friend or family member.
Our drivers test analogy invites the
construction of FCAT-style meaning-in-context using an American college-size
dictionary, especially one that follows Dr. Johnson�s practice of presenting
short phrases and sentences as illustrative examples of specific
meaning-in-context definitions.�� As we
shall see with respect to multi-definition word entries, roughly a third of all
definitions are accompanied by such phrases or sentences � enough so to warrant
more emphasis upon the American dictionary as both a test-construction tool and
a learning tool.
An FCAT-dictionary question comparison. . .
. The comparison presented in Appendix One presents a very strong case for
tests, paralleling our FCAT example, that use a specific dictionary�s phrases
or sentences as the basis for meaning-in-context questions.� Appendix Two takes this case even further by
applying this FCAT-based construction technique to a randomly chosen group of words, namely, those in the first verse of the Star Spangled
Banner (LIGHT, PROUD, GLEAM, etc.).
Appendix Two, simply put, uses
meaning-in-context phrases and sentences from the dictionary itself, along with
dictionary definitions, in questions like the following:� �Which of the following dictionary
definitions for LIGHT best fits its use in the sentence, �This table lamp won't
light�: A. to guide or conduct with a light; B. to become illuminated when
switched on; C. to set burning.��
The potential thrift and practicality
of this dictionary-based method, incidentally, is indicated by the fact that� the average
American college-size dictionary (1500 pp., 70,000 headwords, 200,000
definitions) contains at least 80,000 meaning-in-context illustrative phrases
or sentences suitable for use by do-it-yourself reading comprehension test
designers.
A learner-helper dialogue. . . . Appendix
Three moves our case for dictionary-based learning and test construction into a
more informal setting, namely, a dialogue between two participants, LEARNER and
HELPER, the second of whom uses the family dictionary to select reading
comprehension questions at random and to score LEARNER�s
correct answers on a vocabulary-achievement scale.� A. Pick an entry word from the family
dictionary with a meaning-in-context passage in its entry, B. present the
passage accompanied by its definition, C. present at least one other
definition, and D. offer LEARNER a choice between those two or more
alternatives � that�s all there is to this simple do-it-yourself testing
process��
The simplicity of this process here should
not obscure its importance.� Test
questions like these strike at the very heart of reading and listening
comprehension, which is our ability to go beyond the words themselves to
comprehend precisely what�s in a specific phrase or sentence.� Socially considered, it�s an ability which
varies greatly; not all second graders can explain what�s funny about a riddle like
�Why do contented cows need cow bells? . . . [answer] Because their horns don�t work.��
Nor can all American senior citizens
produce satisfactory answers to senile dementia diagnostic questions (CAT scans
come later) like �What did Benjamin Franklin mean when he told his friends that
they must all hang together if they didn�t want to hang separately�?�� Second grader or seventy-year-old � it�s our
ability to jump past literal-mindedness that holds our civilization together,
especially its laws, its science, its literature, and our national awareness.
The Jon Twing
challenge. . . . What�s here is not intended as a condemnation of the FCAT or
other tests of multiple-meaning awareness (word analogies, synonym-antonym
relationships, etc.).� Far
from it.� Those tests and their
designers have recognized the multiple-meaning challenge and made the first
steps.� So I�m fairly sure that what�s in
these three appendices will be taken as� a logical extension of current
psychometric practice, and a helpful one.�
By way of illustration: Jon Twing, Executive Vice President of Pearson Educational
Measurement, has recently called for the adoption of a national standard of
educational measurement that will be �transparent, verifiable, and not too
complex,� thereby tacitly admitting that what we today call �standardized
testing� does not itself have a �standard� for Americans to use in deciding,
for example, which spelling bee question is �more difficult� than another, or
which crossword puzzle is �more difficult� � New York Times or Los Angeles
Times?
What these three appendices do is to answer
Jon Twing�s call in very explicit terms.� The first proposes the American dictionary as
our central authority (they�re all transparently the same as far as the most
frequently used 20,000 words go).� The
second demonstrates that the American dictionary�s resources can be used,
verifiably so, as a standard for measuring the relative difficulty of
vocabulary questions.� The third
demonstrates that an American dictionary can be used, simply and effectively,
by anyone in his or her home learning program.
English as a foreign language � for
everybody!� But do Americans actually
need to study and test their reading comprehension?� The answer can be summed up in one short
sentence:� ENGLISH IS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
FOR EVERYBODY.� Anyone who checks a few
dictionary pages at random will quickly discover that only about 10% of the
words listed have Old English sources, while 80% of them (largely technical
terms) are explicitly identified as coming from Graeco-Latinate
sources, many of them coined in connection with post-1600 scientific
progress.�
This means that what we can legitimately
call �Internationalist Latinate English� is equally difficult (or easy) for
everybody on the planet: Americans, Australians, Africans, Arabs, Chinese, East
Indians, Pakistanis, etc.� It also means
that our global economy now requires us to compete linguistically against East
Indians and Arabs (immigrants or off shore) who may be far more fluent in ILE
than many Americans born and schooled in the
TO CONCLUDE. . . .
Dr. Samuel Johnson�s definition of a Lexicographer as �a harmless drudge� has
for many years been quoted with amusement.�
But I feel he was wrong, even back in 1755.� If civilization is a Big Vocabulary, a
civilized nation most certainly needs authoritative dictionaries as learning
tools to guide its speakers, writers, teachers, and test designers.� As I see it, Jon Twing
of Pearson has clearly stated our need, and I hope what�s here represents a
worthwhile step to his challenge.
*
APPENDIX A. . . .
Comparison of FCAT �tribe� question format with a dictionary-based �tribe�
question format
FCAT question. . . . Target word: TRIBE. .
. . Reason for selection by FCAT test designers: Not available
>Meaning-in-context passage: �Your letter was the first intimation that another tribe, more numerous
and powerful than all the rest, were grown discontented.� . . . Passage
source: Letter of John Adams to Abigail Adams,
����������� �
>Definition alternatives presented: F.
ancestors, , , , G. . . . husbands.
. . . H. ladies. . . .
>Correct answer: H. ladies.� . . .
Reason why FCAT test designers selected H. as the correct answer, as opposed to
the selection by a tendentious 7th grader of
COMMENT. . . . This question presents the
test taker with two challenges.� The
first of these is the short-term memory challenge memory challenge of recalling
what was in the letter by Abigail that John Adams is referring to.� The second is that of deciding what John
means by �tribe.�� It�s worth noting here
that many reading-comprehension questions in the National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP) also call for reading a passage, remembering what
it says, and then answering questions about what it means.� For some test takers and their parents, the
exclusion of neutral alternatives like �people� might raise difficulties,
paralleling the use of SUFFRAGIST for both men and women supporters of women�s
rights.
Dictionary-based question. . . . Target
word: TRIBE. . . . Reason for selection:�
The target word is a high-frequency word with a high probability of
multiple meanings and illustrative meaning-in-context phrases and
sentences.�
>Meaning-in-context passage: �an
outburst against the whole tribe of theoreticians� . . . Passage source: The
New Oxford American Dictionary.� This was
the only college-size dictionary which listed an illustrative passage for
TRIBE, as opposed to American Heritage, Merriam Webster, Random House, and
Webster�s
>Definition alternatives presented in
sequence: A. a social class in a traditional society of families or
communities; B. (derogatory) a group or class of people or things; C. (in
ancient
>Source of definition alternatives: New
Oxford American Dictionary, under TRIBE, definitions 1, 2, 3, 5 out of seven. .
. .�
>Correct answer: D (definition 5).
�(derogatory) a group or class of people or things.� . . . Reason for
characterizing this answer as �correct.� . . . Answer D is the phrase that the
dictionary actually cites under definition 5 for TRIBE.� Since this citation can subsequently be check
by test takers, this kind of test question has a far higher of verifiable
accuracy and authority than questions whose correct answers, rightly or
wrongly, come across as production of designer whim.
>Test question scoring:� The question�s achievement-scale rating can
be stated as 1.4. . . . Here�s how the rating system works. . . . (a) Number of
letters (we know TRIBE is more familiar than SERVANT because it has only 5
letters, as opposed to 7). . . . (b) Total number of definitions (we know TRIBE
is more familiar than SERVANT because it has a total of 7 definitions, as
opposed to just 3. . . . (c) Definition number (we know the 5th definition
in an entry is more familiar than the 7th ,
though less familiar than the 1st . . . . (d) Formula � We
add a and c and divide the result by b to produce our rating.� For TRIBE our formula, (5+5)/7, therefore
produces a rating of 1.4.
For SERVANT, assuming the correct answer
was definition 3 with the example public servant, our formula, (5+3)/3, would
produce a rating of 2.7 � a higher level of unfamiliarity and hence� a higher rating on our achievement scale. . .
. Based on this scale, a correct answer to the SERVANT question would earn a
higher score than a correct answer to our TRIBE question.
COMMENT. . . . Every lexicographer, from
Samuel Johnson on, is an open target for critics, and so are the dictionaries
that lexicographers produce, including the New Oxford American dictionary.� But they are, after all, publicly available
works whose entries can be quickly checked, so that a test designer who uses a
current dictionary as source of both meaning-in-context passages, definition
alternatives, and correct answers is far less vulnerable to criticism and
charges of bad faith than test designers who say in effect, �We�re the experts,
so trust us and � even more important � trust our statistics.��
A NOTE ON TEST-CONSTRUCTION COST. . . .
Dictionary-based test questions like these take no more than five minutes to
type up, especially if the dictionary is available online or via CD-ROM. . . .
Since each college-size dictionary (1500 pp.) on the average contains 70,000
entries and 200,000 definitions, a test designer has � in theory, at least �
70,000 potential meaning-in-context questions to draw from.�
Practically considered, 50,000 of the
entries (MYOCARDIUM, etc.) have only one or two definitions listed for
them.� The other 20,000 entries for our
more frequently used words handle the remaining 130,000 definitions, averaging
out to about seven definitions per entry, with roughly a third of these
containing one or more illustrative meaning-in-context phrases or
sentences.�
A dictionary-based test designer doesn�t
have to invent alternative answers, as in the FCAT question-construction
approach. . . . Nor does the designer have to do much typing, since the phrase
or sentence, along with the definitions, can be highlighted, copied, and pasted
via a CD ROM version.� Best of all, home
learners themselves can use the listed word-entries as study targets before
showing up to take a test, including practice tests administered by friends or
family members.
To put it more dramatically:� The FCAT construction cost per question,
including statistical norming, can be fairly stated
as at least $100 per item, as opposed to a two dollars per item cost for
dictionary-based items � or absolutely nothing if the learner elects to do his
or her own list compiling and dictionary checking.
TO SUM UP. . . .
The merits of our dictionary-based learning system (DBL), for both home
learners and professional educators for three reasons, can be described with
three key adjectives.
DBL is practical. . . . Anyone can use a
desk dictionary as a meaning-in-context learning tool.� Given a list of target words (there are many
available online), anyone can locate their entry form, as with TRIBE, their
numbered list of definitions, and a specific definition with a
meaning-in-context passage to serve as target.�
This means any parent or friend can serve as test administrator and
record keeper for a learner at any level of difficulty.
DBL is productive. . . . DBL may be a small
stream on the home learner level, but it flows directly into the very, very
large river of high stakes language skills testing, most of which focuses upon
vocabulary power and reading comprehension � including eight hours of the 16
hours devoted to our four major pre-professional tests: GRE, GMAT, LSAT, and
MCAT.� Important though high school and
college grades are, it�s test performance that matters
more and more in a career-mobile society, as indicated by the rising status of
crossword puzzle literacy.
DBL is public. . . . A college-level
American dictionary is a public document that changes very little from decade
to decade in its basic 20,000-word multi-definition vocabulary.� But our so-called �standardized tests� are
creations of the private sector � �standardized tests without standards,� they
might be called.� It�s inevitable that
dictionaries will more and more function as learning-measurement tools, as
indicated by the way in which our vocabulary achievement scale can be used to
rate and rank each of our potential 80,000 meaning-in-context reading
comprehension questions.
>A dictionary, a learner, and some
personal-best energy � if the combination worked for Abraham Lincoln, why
shouldn�t it work today for Americans � all of us!
*
APPENDIX TWO. . . . How
to prepare study lists and meaning-in-context test questions for use in
learner-helper partnerships, based on the Random House Webster�s Unabridged
College Dictionary.
A2a. . . .
A dictionary-based reading comprehension study list using the dictionary-entry
(�headword�) form of words that appear in the Star Spangled Banner (light,
proud, gleam, broad, stripe, fight, watch, gallant, stream, and burst)
PRELIMINARY NOTE. . . . The accompanying
dictionary headwords are presented in terms of their probably familiarity
level.� Each one is followed by four
numbers.� The first number represents its
number of letters (5 for LIGHT); the second represents the number of
definitions listed in sequence for it (37 for LIGHT); the third number
represents its word frequency (�familiarity�) level via its number of
definitions divided by its number of letters (37/5=7.4 for LIGHT; the fourth
number represents the number of illustrative meaning-in-context passages cited
for it in the dictionary entry for that head word (6 passages listed for
LIGHT).�
Any learner can compile a study list like
this on his or her own, and then hand it over to a friend of family member for
use in creating meaning-in-context test questions.
light����� 5��������� 37�������� 7.4������� 6
watch��� 5��������� 22�������� 4.4������� 6
fight����� 5��������� 19�������� 3.8������� 3
broad��� 5��������� 16�������� 3.2������� 5
burst���� 5��������� 14�������� 2.8������� 7
stream
6���������� 14�������� 2.3������� 5
proud��� 5��������� 10�������� 2��������� 4
gallant
7����������� 10�������� 1.4������� 3
gleam�� 5��������� 5��������� 1��������� 2
stripe��� 6��������� 6��������� 1��������� 1
STUDYING FOR A MEANING-IN-CONTEXT
Question construction. . . . A
meaning-in-context test question first links a headword to one of its
definitions, as in linking LIGHT to its 31st� definition, �This table lamp won't
light� (def. 31).� It then lists this
definition in random-alphabetical sequence with one or more other definitions,
as in (a) �to guide or conduct with a light.� (def. 28);� (b) �to become illuminated when
switched on� (def. 31); (c) to �set burning� (def. 23).
The relative difficulty of questions like
these can be determined by a vocabulary-achievement scale rating formula in
which a target word�s number of letters are added to the numerical-sequence
number of the passage�s definition and then divided as a group by the word�s
total number of definitions.� LIGHT has 5
letters and its passage appears in definition 31.� Since its total number of definitions is 37,
(5+31)/37 gives us a difficulty rating of .9 � substantially higher than if our
target passage had been viewing the portrait in dim light (def. 8), in which
event its formula figures would have been (5+8)/37, and its��
rating
would have been .38.
Answer scoring. . . . An informal
learner-helper partnership opens the door to negotiation and point scoring
alternatives.� If the learner chooses a
higher difficulty level, he or she is entitled to more points.� On the other hand, if the learner
choose to have only two answer alternatives, as opposed to three or
four, he or she can expect to earn proportionately fewer points.� The partnership can achieve these goals by
multiplying the difficulty rating by the number of answer alternatives times
ten.� A .9 question would therefore earn
18 points for a 2-alternative correct answer, as opposed to 27 points for a
3-alternative answer.
As will be apparent to many, these scoring
features are similar to those of Jeopardy and many card games.� They introduce higher levels of personal
choice and rule complexity into the study-testing process, along with higher
levels of concentration � all in the interests of improving meaning-in-context
reading comprehension.
Learner strategies. . . . Broadly
considered, seven correct answers out of ten questions represents
a satisfactory goal, especially if the study time is limited to half an hour
for ten words (146 definitions in this instance).� Since learning styles vary, individual
learners will have to decide for themselves how much attention to give
etymologies, part-of-speech labels, the entry as a whole, the illustrative
passages, and � most important � the �semantic logic� behind the sequencing of
the numbered definitions.� Each word is
different, after all, and so are the roles which the speech community over time
finds for it to play.
TO SUM UP. . . .
For home learners, the primary requirement is a study list of multiple-meaning
words with at least one illustrative meaning-in-context phrase or
sentence.� Practically considered, most
5-, 6-, and 7-letter words with 5 or more definitions will meet this
requirement.� If desired, a learner can
start with any list (spelling, SAT, Dolch, etc.) and
simply guess which ones meet this �familiarity� requirement as indicated by
their word-frequency standings via our definitions-divided-by-letters formula.
Will LEARN meet this requirement? . . .
With a score of 7/5, it certainly does. . . . How about FORMULA? . . .
Surprisingly so (to me, at least), it does too, and with a score of 7/7!� A college-size dictionary is like our society
itself:� It makes sense as a mainstream
document, but it�s also filled with surprises, enough so that�s it worth our
time to become familiar with how both of them actually work � ideally through
hands on experience.
*
APPENDIX THREE. . . . An Illustrative
Learner-Helper
Scene. . . . Any
comfortable setting, even a park bench, with two friends and a college-size
dictionary (American Heritage, Merriam-Webster, Random House, Webster�s
HELPER. . . . Let�s start by picking a
dictionary page.� What are the first four
digits (month and day) of your birthday?
LEARNER. . . . October 25th
means 1025, I guess.
HELPER. . . .�� That means we�ll start on page 1025 of RH
and pick the first word meeting our three test-question requirements.� Do you remember what they are?
LEARNER. . . . (1) 5, 6, or 7 letters, (2)
at least five definitions, and (3) at least one illustrative meaning-in-context
phrase or passage. . . . usually in italics.
HELPER. . . . That�s right, and that means
our target word jumps right out at us as READY.�
It has twelve definitions and is located near the bottom of the first
column of page 1025.� Our selected target
passage, is �ready to forgive,� which is cited for one
of the following definitions. . . . A. inclined; disposed; apt. . . . B. not
hesitant; willing. . . . Before you make an a-or-b
choice of which definition you feel is actually listed for our target phrase,
would you like to hear your target again?
LEARNER. . . . Yes.
HELPER. . . . Here it is. . . .READY. . .
.� ready to
forgive. (a) inclined; disposed; apt. . . .(b) not
hesitant; willing. . . . What�s the letter of your choice � A or B?
LEARNER. . . . Just guessing, to tell the
truth, but I choose B.
HELPER. . . . That�s correct! . . . . And
that means you�ve just earned 114 points.�
Do you remember how the formula works?
LEARNER. . . . Number of letters � 5 � plus
number of the correct definition. . . . What was it?
HELPER. . . . Two.
LEARNER. . . . Divided by the total number
of definitions, which you said was 12. . . . (5+2)/12.
. . . That gives me .83, which multiplied by twenty gives me 166 points.� Is that right?
HELPER. . . . That�s right. . . . Do you
want to try another round?
LEARNER. . . . No.� I�d rather switch roles.
HELPER. . . . That�s fine with me.
NEW HELPER. . . . What�s your birthday?
NEW LEARNER. . . . April 19.
NEW HELPER. . . . That puts us on page 419.
. . . And that gives ERROR as a target with 8 definitions, among which is a
deviation from accuracy or correctness; mistake I was in error about the date.
Do you want two definitions to choose from, or three.
NEW LEARNER. . . . I�ll take three.
NEW HELPER. . . . Here they are: I was in
error about the date. . . . A. a deviation from accuracy or correctness;
mistake. . . . B.� the
condition of believing what is not true. . . . C.��� the holding of mistaken opinions. . . . Are
you ready.
NEW LEARNER. . . . Yes. . . . My choice is
C.
�
NEW HELPER. . . . You�re wrong.� The correct answer is B.
NEW LEARNER. . . . That doesn�t seem right
to me. . . . What�s the difference between an opinion and a belief?
NEW HELPER. . . . I don�t know. . . . But
this is a right-or-wrong dictionary game, isn�t it?
NEW LEARNER. . . .� Yes.
NEW HELPER. . . . So that means your answer
is wrong, according to the dictionary.�
Do you want to play another round?
NEW LEARNER. . . . No.�
NEW HELPER. . . . Do you want to switch
roles?
NEW LEARNER. . . . No. . . . I don�t want
to play anymore.
NEW HELPER. . . . Would you rather start
with a list and study it first?
NEW LEARNER. . . . Yes.�
NEW HELPER. . . . Me too.
COMMENT. . . . RH�s
entry for BELIEF indicates that it�s a stronger word and has more to do with
factual matters than OPINION, which has more to do with judgments and
estimates.� Since the judicial profession
constantly mandates definitional distinctions like this, this kind of
two-player game might be excellent preparations for aspiring debaters, lawyers,
and judges. . . . But it might also be good preliminary training for third
graders � and fun too!
This dialogue format is intended to
emphasize the one-on-one practicality of multiple-meaning practice
testing.� But it should be obvious, I feel, that the multiple-choice feature makes it practical
for use with large groups and even online.�
Even more important, the number of well-formatted questions that will be
available to a program is staggering, since at least a third of the 200,000
definitions in a college-size dictionary are accompanied by illustrative
meaning-in-context phrases or sentences.�
The more reading-comprehension questions,
the more progress and the more growth in confidence and self esteem � isn�t
that a sound policy for any educational program?
***
NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Echoing a classic formulation, the premise
behind this booklet could be described as calling for �
Nonpartisan Education Review / Resources
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